11 Rules which are never learn in school! -By Bill Gates

Top 10 construction companies in the world!

10. Laing O’Rourke

The British-based company is young compared to some of its fellow top-tenners, but has quickly expanded, working on several high-profile projects in the last decade, including Ascot Racecourse and Heathrow Airport Terminal 5. Oversees it is currently involved in the huge Al Raha beach development in Abu Dhabi.

9. Royal BAM Group

Founded in 1886 in Holland, the company built Ajax football club’s Amsterdam Arena in its native Netherlands in 1996. Bataafsche Aanneming Maatschappij, from which the company abbreviates its name, translates as Batavian Construction Company for Construction and Concrete Projects. Around 27,000 people work for the group.

8. Kiewit

Nebraska-based Kiewit is unique within this list in that it is owned by its employees, meaning almost all its projects are staffed by shareholders. The company was named number three in Engineering News-Record’s Top 400 Contractors of 2013.

7. Bouygues Construction

The French company employs more than 130,000 people in 80 different countries. In the mid 1990s it expanded into telecoms, which became another major revenue stream. Its subsidiary, Colas Group, specialises in road construction and rail track construction.

6. Balfour Beatty

The multinational was founded in 1909 by George Balfour and Andrew Beatty. Headquartered in London, the company is currently an integral part of the Crossrail project in the UK capital. It operates in more than 80 countries around the world and employs some 40,000 people.

5. Skanska

Based in Sweden, the multinational operates in the residential, commercial, residential and infrastructure sectors. In the US, the company is known for constructing the Meadowland Sports Complex, home to the NFL’s New York Jets and Giants. Skanska employs more than 50,000 people.

4. Hochtief

Focusing on infrastructure projects, the German company operates in the US through its Turner subsidiary. Hochtief employs around 80,000 people and celebrates its 140th anniversary this year. Spanish contractor Grupo ACS has owned a majority stake in the company of 50.16 percent since 2011.

3. Bechtel

The largest US contractor has worked on such high-profile projects as the Hoover Dam completed back in 1936, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system in the ‘70s and more recently the ‘Big Dig’ Central Artery project finished in 2007. The company employs more than 53,000 people around the world.

2. Grupo ACS

The Spanish contractor was formed in 1997 through the merger of two other construction companies. It has grown through several high-profile acquisitions including that of Hochtief. The company has worked on the Alqueva Dam in Portugal and Torre de Cristal and Torre Espacio skyscrapers in its home country.

1   Vinci

The 115 year-old French giant reports the largest revenues of any privately-owned construction company in the world, a position it has achieved through shrewd acquisitions and effective delivery of high-profile, large-scale infrastructure projects such as the Gariep Dam in South Africa, completed in 1971 and the Stade de France. The arena was built for the 1998 football World Cup, and now serves as France’s national Stadium.

Operating worldwide, the Group employs more than 183,000 people according to the last available figures (from 2011).

The Group is currently working on the €440 million express-lane highway system in Atlanta, Georgia and the Wheatstone Liquefied Natural Gas Project in Australia.

What are the differences between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G?

Ever since mobile telecommunications standards were first laid down in the 1980s (the First Generation or 1G), there has been a continuous effort to increase the data rates available to the end users. Once certain levels of data rates are achieved by the industry, they set even higher targets, driven of course by the ever increasing demand by the users. 

1G, 2G, 3G and 4G basically refer to these standards that were successively laid and met by the telecommunication sector (both the industry and the academia). The current thrust is towards reaching the 5th Generation of mobile communications. Behind each of these generations, there have been one or more breakthrough technologies that helped achieve the quantum inter-generation leaps in the data rates. I will elaborate upon those below:

First Generation (1G):
Completely Analog
Modulation Scheme - Analog FM modulation
Multiple Access Scheme - FDMA with Frequency Division Duplexing
Examples: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Services)

Second Generation (2G):
Digital Communication introduced
Still designed only for phone calls (using phones to access internet was still unthinkable) ~ 10 kbps
Multiple Access Scheme - FDMA, TDMA (for GSM) and CDMA
Examples: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

2.5G:
Realization dawned that people wanted phones for both voice and data and thus this intermediate standard was introduced.
Recall how you used to access internet using GPRS (General Packet Radio Service). Up until 2G, only circuit switched networks were in use which were unsuitable for internet. With the advent of GPRS, packet switching was introduced which was more suited for internet.
Examples: GPRS ~ 50 kbps
                  EDGE (Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution) ~ 200 kbps

Third Generation (3G):

This time the target was to be able to provide sufficient data rate for both voice and mobile internet ~ 384 kbps
Examples: WCDMA (Wideband CDMA), CDMA 2000 and UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecomm Standard)

3.5G:

This is what most of urban India currently uses. HSDPA/HSUPA (High Speed Downlink/Uplink Packet Access) are the standards used and they offer data rates of 5-30 Mbps.

Fourth Generation (4G):

In essence, Mobile Broadband. They now want to offer you broadband-like data rates on mobile devices ~ 100-200 Mbps. 
The key technologies that have made this possible are MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). For those who are from engineering background, MIMO leverages spatial multiplexing to provide diversity gain while OFDM is more adept at managing channel distortion and ISI.
The two important 4G standards are WiMAX (has now fizzled out) and LTE (has seen widespread deployment). LTE has only recently been introduced in India.

5G
 
Gigabit Internet (Woah!)
This is what the academia and the industry is working towards now. Expected to arrive in 2020.
Key technologies to look out for: Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications, Massive MIMO

There. You now have a birds-eye view of the different generations of mobile communication.

What is Li-Fi Technology!?

Li-Fi technology is a ground-breaking light-based communication technology, which makes use of light waves instead of radio technology to deliver data.

Li-Fi can compensate as the radio spectrum becomes overloaded

Using the visible light spectrum, Li-Fi technology can transmit data and unlock capacity which is 10,000 times greater than that available within the radio spectrum.

The visible light spectrum is plentiful, free and unlicensed, mitigating the radio frequency spectrum crunch effect.

The future internet

Li-Fi technology will in future enable faster, more reliable internet connections, even when the demand for data usage has outgrown the available supply from existing technologies such as 4G, LTE and Wi-Fi. It will not replace these technologies, but will work seamlessly alongside them.

Using light to deliver wireless internet will also allow connectivity in environments that do not currently readily support Wi-Fi, such as aircraft cabins, hospitals and hazardous environments.

Light is already used for data transmission in fibre-optic cables and for point to point links, but Li-Fi is a special and novel combination of technologies that allow it to be universally adopted for mobile ultra high speed internet communications.

A dual use for LED lighting

The wide use of solid state lighting offers an opportunity for efficient dual use lighting and communication systems.

Innovation in LED and photon receiver technology has ensured the availability of suitable light transmitters and detectors, while advances in the modulation of communication signals for these types of components has been advanced through signal processing techniques, such as multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO), to become as sophisticated as those used in mobile telecommunications.

An integrated communication solution

Li-Fi technology is being developed into a ubiquitous systems technology, consisting of application specific combinations of light transmitters, light receivers including solar cells, efficient computational algorithms and networking capabilities that can be deployed in a wide range of communication scenarios and in a variety of device platforms.

History of Computer :

History of Computers

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This chapter is a brief summary of the history of Computers. It is supplemented by the two PBS documentaries video tapes "Inventing the Future" And "The Paperback Computer". The chapter highlights some of the advances to look for in the documentaries.
In particular, when viewing the movies you should look for two things:

• The progression in hardware representation of a bit of data:
  1. Vacuum Tubes (1950s) - one bit on the size of a thumb;
  2. Transistors (1950s and 1960s) - one bit on the size of a fingernail;
  3. Integrated Circuits (1960s and 70s) - thousands of bits on the size of a hand
  4. Silicon computer chips (1970s and on) - millions of bits on the size of a finger nail.
• The progression of the ease of use of computers:
  1. Almost impossible to use except by very patient geniuses (1950s);
  2. Programmable by highly trained people only (1960s and 1970s);
  3. Useable by just about anyone (1980s and on).

to see how computers got smaller, cheaper, and easier to use.

First Computers

Eniac Computer

The first substantial computer was the giant ENIAC machine by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) used a word of 10 decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous automated calculators/computers. ENIAC was also the first machine to use more than 2,000 vacuum tubes, using nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes. Storage of all those vacuum tubes and the machinery required to keep the cool took up over 167 square meters (1800 square feet) of floor space. Nonetheless, it had punched-card input and output and arithmetically had 1 multiplier, 1 divider-square rooter, and 20 adders employing decimal "ring counters," which served as adders and also as quick-access (0.0002 seconds) read-write register storage.
The executable instructions composing a program were embodied in the separate units of ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a route through the machine for the flow of computations. These connections had to be redone for each different problem, together with presetting function tables and switches. This "wire-your-own" instruction technique was inconvenient, and only with some license could ENIAC be considered programmable; it was, however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed. ENIAC is generally acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer (EDC) and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. A controversy developed in 1971, however, over the patentability of ENIAC's basic digital concepts, the claim being made that another U.S. physicist, John V. Atanasoff, had already used the same ideas in a simpler vacuum-tube device he built in the 1930s while at Iowa State College. In 1973, the court found in favor of the company using Atanasoff claim and Atanasoff received the acclaim he rightly deserved.

Progression of Hardware

In the 1950's two devices would be invented that would improve the computer field and set in motion the beginning of the computer revolution. The first of these two devices was the transistor. Invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs, the transistor was fated to oust the days of vacuum tubes in computers, radios, and other electronics.

Vaccum Tubes

The vacuum tube, used up to this time in almost all the computers and calculating machines, had been invented by American physicist Lee De Forest in 1906. The vacuum tube, which is about the size of a human thumb, worked by using large amounts of electricity to heat a filament inside the tube until it was cherry red. One result of heating this filament up was the release of electrons into the tube, which could be controlled by other elements within the tube. De Forest's original device was a triode, which could control the flow of electrons to a positively charged plate inside the tube. A zero could then be represented by the absence of an electron current to the plate; the presence of a small but detectable current to the plate represented a one.

Transistors

Vacuum tubes were highly inefficient, required a great deal of space, and needed to be replaced often. Computers of the 1940s and 50s had 18,000 tubes in them and housing all these tubes and cooling the rooms from the heat produced by 18,000 tubes was not cheap. The transistor promised to solve all of these problems and it did so. Transistors, however, had their problems too. The main problem was that transistors, like other electronic components, needed to be soldered together. As a result, the more complex the circuits became, the more complicated and numerous the connections between the individual transistors and the likelihood of faulty wiring increased.
In 1958, this problem too was solved by Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments. He manufactured the first integrated circuit or chip. A chip is really a collection of tiny transistors which are connected together when the transistor is manufactured. Thus, the need for soldering together large numbers of transistors was practically nullified; now only connections were needed to other electronic components. In addition to saving space, the speed of the machine was now increased since there was a diminished distance that the electrons had to follow.

Circuit Board	Silicon Chip

Mainframes to PCs

The 1960s saw large mainframe computers become much more common in large industries and with the US military and space program. IBM became the unquestioned market leader in selling these large, expensive, error-prone, and very hard to use machines.
A veritable explosion of personal computers occurred in the early 1970s, starting with Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak exhibiting the first Apple II at the First West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco. The Apple II boasted built-in BASIC programming language, color graphics, and a 4100 character memory for only $1298. Programs and data could be stored on an everyday audio-cassette recorder. Before the end of the fair, Wozniak and Jobs had secured 300 orders for the Apple II and from there Apple just took off.
Also introduced in 1977 was the TRS-80. This was a home computer manufactured by Tandy Radio Shack. In its second incarnation, the TRS-80 Model II, came complete with a 64,000 character memory and a disk drive to store programs and data on. At this time, only Apple and TRS had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive, personal computer applications took off as a floppy disk was a most convenient publishing medium for distribution of software.
IBM, which up to this time had been producing mainframes and minicomputers for medium to large-sized businesses, decided that it had to get into the act and started working on the Acorn, which would later be called the IBM PC. The PC was the first computer designed for the home market which would feature modular design so that pieces could easily be added to the architecture. Most of the components, surprisingly, came from outside of IBM, since building it with IBM parts would have cost too much for the home computer market. When it was introduced, the PC came with a 16,000 character memory, keyboard from an IBM electric typewriter, and a connection for tape cassette player for $1265.
By 1984, Apple and IBM had come out with new models. Apple released the first generation Macintosh, which was the first computer to come with a graphical user interface(GUI) and a mouse. The GUI made the machine much more attractive to home computer users because it was easy to use. Sales of the Macintosh soared like nothing ever seen before. IBM was hot on Apple's tail and released the 286-AT, which with applications like Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet, and Microsoft Word, quickly became the favourite of business concerns.
That brings us up to about ten years ago. Now people have their own personal graphics workstations and powerful home computers. The average computer a person might have in their home is more powerful by several orders of magnitude than a machine like ENIAC. The computer revolution has been the fastest growing technology in man's history.

10 Tips for Success for Engineering Students..

If you're a current engineering student, here are ways to put yourself on the fast track to success.

1. Identify the people who inspire you,and find out what makes them tick. If you love Apple products, Steve Jobs may be your idol, or perhaps you love the Segway and its creator, Dean Kamen. You can easily find out a lot of information about Jobs and Kamen—or just about any other prominent person in technology—so use it to look into what's helped these people and their companies become so successful. Then emulate their good traits in your personal, scholastic, and professional life.

2. Develop a portfolio of projects.Participate in every hands-on, experiential learning opportunity that a balanced schedule allows. This way, you'll have something unique to show a prospective employer (or venture capitalist) when you graduate, while other students will only be able to list their courses. In addition, you'll be far more likely to retain the knowledge you've gained in classes because you'll be applying it and, in the process, boosting your communication and interpersonal skills.

3. Learn the value of networking. When it comes to being a leader, whom you know is almost as important as what you know. Attend lectures on your campus and introduce yourself to the speakers. Check with your school's alumni association to get a list of alumni from your program who want to connect with undergraduates.

4-Star Tip. In addition to E-mail, you can use LinkedIn or other social media tools to connect online. But remember: There's no substitute for a traditional, face-to-face meeting, so if you can find a way to meet in person, that's always the best.

5. Seek informal leadership roles.You're always a leader, whether you're officially in charge of a team or not. Sounds counterintuitive, but you can lead from any position in an organization by influencing how people work together and how they make decisions. Usually people think that the leader is the president or the manager, but if you learn how to recognize and deal with various leadership styles from any position in a team, you'll be seen as a leader when you take on your first job or internship.

6. Find your flaws—and fix them. As with any skill, leadership needs constant improvement. When you are part of a team, try to create a way to get feedback from team members, group leaders, and professors. When you have concrete feedback on how people view you, you can work to improve your skills, including communication and leadership. Plus, you'll learn how to accept—and give—constructive criticism. That's absolutely necessary for your future career.

7. Take a business class. As an engineer, it's not enough for you to be technically proficient; you need to have business savvy. If you're going to be a leader, you need to understand what a P&L is (also known as an income statement), read organization charts, know how to negotiate contracts, and be familiar with the myriad other functions that every top engineer needs to know. Otherwise, you won't understand what to do when an accountant, lawyer, or middle manager gets in the way. A business course or two can take you a long way, and these classes are often easier to pass than your calculus course!

8. Take design and other humanities classes. There's a wide world out there beyond problem sets, laboratories, and theory. Take a visual design course so you'll learn to represent ideas graphically. Take a cognitive science course to learn how people interpret the world and understand it. Take a literature course to develop your knowledge and appreciation of the classic books, which will help you write and communicate more effectively.

5-Star Tip. Tomorrow's leaders will have to communicate effectively across international borders and be familiar with other cultures, so develop some proficiency in another language, travel abroad, or meet students from other cultures. Start "globalizing" right at college.

9. Make your summers productive.Employers place tremendous value on practical experience. Seek out internship opportunities actively and early in your academic career. Try to demonstrate through your internships a series of evolving leadership experiences, and use the internships to build your portfolio of actual projects/products. New graduates who can show a commitment to using their summer to continue to learn are always viewed more seriously by a prospective employer.

10. Recruit and develop your personalboard of directors. As an undergraduate, you might feel alone when confronted with hard decisions about the courses to take, jobs to apply for, or even balancing school work and your personal life. You won't feel alone if you develop a personal board of directors just for you. Just as a company has a board that guides the organization, you can stock your board with professionals from organizations and companies, as well as former teachers and knowledgeable family friends.

Top 10 hackers of the world Who wrote the history:

1. Konrad Zuse

 

It all started with Konrad Zuse, the very first computer hacker. He might not be in the literal sense, but no hacker could make a difference without his work at all.

Zuse Z3 has developed the first programmable computer in the world. He actually began with the Z1, which he constructed in the living room of his parents and completed in 1938. The Z3 was completed in 1941. Often regarded as inventor of modern computer.

2. John “Captain Crunch” Draper

 

John Draper started hacking computers before they really went up the hill.  He implemented the programming language Forth and the first word processor for Apple computers, called “Easy Writer”.

In the 1970s, Draper worked with hacking techniques and was a pioneer of circumvention of technical barriers. He made ​​the phone – phreaking using the well known Blue Box, so one could make free calls to analog telephones. At that time the system was controlled by analog tone sequences, with which one could also initiate free long distance or international calls. This hack technique was called “phreaking”. One of the most important tools for phone hacking is a Pennywhistle from the cereal box of Cap’n Crunch.

Draper developed the Blue Box, a device with which one could produce numerous control sounds of telephone companies.

3. Steve Wozniak

 

Wozniak is a contemporary of John Draper and knew phreaking as well. After Draper published on a computer club meeting the details of his Blue Box, Wozniak built his own version.

Steve Jobs recognized the market potential of the device and the two Steves started their first company. From the sale of Wozniak HP calculators they gained enough revenue to build the Apple I.

4. Robert Tappan Morris

 

A graduate student at Cornell University, Robert Morris developed the first computer worm. According to his own statements, he wanted to capture the size of the Internet. After he set  the software on November 2, 1988 free, he infected 6,000 computers -which were then about 10 percent of Internet-connected computers.

Due to a programming error, the worm multiplied excessively and made sure that many computers were overloaded. 1989, Morris was the first to be convicted under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986.

5. Mark “PhiberOptik” Abene

 

Most computers experts probably know Mark Abene,. He had the phone company AT &T. As a member of the hacker group Masters of Deception Abene played often around at the AT & T systems.

Through his hacking skills, he crashed the AT& T system and 60,000 customers remained without a phone for about 9 hours, Abene was quickly identified as the culprit. The Secret Service confiscated his equipment. AT & T had to later admit that the crash was due to an error. Nevertheless, Abene was convicted and landed for a year in jail.He was the first hacker who was detained.

6. Kevin “Dark Dante” Poulsen

 

Poulsen led by one of the coolest hacks of all time. All the radio lines of L.A radio station KIIS-FM. This radio station promised the 102nd caller of the program would win a Porsche 944 S2.

Poulsen took over all telephone lines and the transmitter and thus ensured that his call was the right one. The telephone line went out later on during the broadcast.

Later, he went into hiding and was wanted by the FBI. He even landed in the American so called unsolved “File number XY … unsolved.” . 1991 Poulsen was under arrest and numerous offenses against him pleaded guilty.

Later he made a 180-degree turn and worked for the elucidation of many computer crimes.

7. Kevin Mitnick

Kevin Mitnick is probably the most famous hacker in the world. He managed to be the first to get on the FBI’s list of most wanted people in the world. He broke into the systems of Nokia and Motorola.

He hacked the punch card ticketing system of Los Angeles bus system through which he could travel in any bus throughout the state. Through a phone number given by his friend he hacked DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) main software.

In 1979, at the age of 16, he hacked a computer for the first time and copied proprietary software. After two and a half years, he was arrested and spent five years in prison. He now runs his own security company.

8. Tsutomu Shimomura

Not all hackers are “evil”. Tsutomu Shimomura made sure that Kevin Mitnick was convicted. He helped and collaborated with FBI to get the famous hacker Mitnick arrested.

In 1994 Mitnick stole some personal files of Shimomura and published them online. Shimomura managed to trace it back to Mitnick. Some authors consider his involvement in Mitnick case/arrest as dubious.

9. Richard Stallman

Stallman was a student and programmer at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab. He was already open source and retaliated at MIT against the restriction of computer use in the laboratory. In the university a password-protected computer system was established for students. He decrypted the passwords and sent to the users in plain text, and proposed to give up the password to again in the future to enable anonymous access.

Later Stallman developed the GPL General Public License and the GNU operating system, a completely free Unix system.

10. Linus Torvalds

Linus Torvalds began his hacking career on an old Commodore VIC-20 and the Sinclair QL, which he greatly improved. On the QL, he programmed his own Text Editor and even a Pac-Man clone named Cool Man.

In 1991, he got hold of an Intel 80386 PC and started working on Linux, which he first published under its own license, but later, under the GNU GPL. He was the principal force behind the development of Linux Kernel.